If you have been reading about 脂肪营养不良 and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Updated 2026-01-22. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Clinical study of tesamorelin has centered on adults with HIV-associated lipodystrophy, a condition in which abdominal fat accumulates while peripheral fat is lost. In controlled trials, treated participants showed reductions in visceral adipose tissue measured by imaging, alongside modest shifts in some lipid values. Effects on subcutaneous fat were smaller and less consistent across studies. Whether these changes translate into fewer cardiovascular events remains an open question, because the trials were not designed or powered to answer it.
Tesamorelin is a synthetic peptide that acts as an analog of growth hormone-releasing hormone, a natural hypothalamic signal. Its sequence corresponds to the forty-four amino acid form of the human hormone, with a small acyl group attached near the amino terminus. That modification slows enzymatic breakdown and extends the time the peptide remains active in circulation. The compound was developed as a pharmacological way to raise endogenous growth hormone output rather than supplying the hormone directly.
Growth hormone released from the pituitary stimulates the liver and other tissues to produce insulin-like growth factor 1, a stable circulating protein that serves as a practical marker of activity. Clinical studies therefore track IGF-1 concentrations alongside the hormone itself, and they commonly measure body composition with imaging rather than relying on body weight alone. Visceral adipose tissue, the fat surrounding abdominal organs, is quantified by computed tomography in the studies that supported approval. Adverse effects reported in trials include injection-site reactions, joint pain, and increases in blood glucose, which is why monitoring accompanies use.
Questions remain about how much of the observed fat reduction reflects direct GHRH-receptor signaling versus the downstream growth hormone and IGF-1 surge. It is also unclear whether the compound produces meaningful benefit in populations without lipodystrophy, since trials in cognitive impairment did not reach their stated goals. Long-term effects on glucose metabolism and on cardiovascular outcomes are not fully characterized. Published work generally describes effects on surrogate markers rather than on hard clinical endpoints, and independent replication of some findings is limited.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Drug class | Peptide hormone analog | Acts at the growth hormone-releasing hormone receptor |
| Receptor | Growth hormone-releasing hormone receptor | G protein-coupled; raises cyclic AMP in somatotrophs |
| Key mediator | Insulin-like growth factor 1 | Increases with repeated administration |
| Main studied population | Adults with HIV-associated lipodystrophy | Trials measured visceral adipose tissue by imaging |
| Route | Subcutaneous injection | Given once daily in clinical use |
在临床研究之外，特沙莫瑞林常被讨论为生长激素分泌促进剂，但这一说法需要限定。它并不等同于生长激素本身，也不属于普通减重药物。部分研究关注其减少腹部脂肪和改善脂质谱的潜力，另一些研究则关注胰岛素抵抗和 IGF-1 升高等信号。这些效应的临床意义仍在评估中，尚未形成统一结论。
特沙莫瑞林是一种合成肽，其序列与人生长激素释放激素的 44 个氨基酸形式相关。它在 N 端带有反式-3-己烯酰基修饰，这一改动可减缓二肽基肽酶 IV 的降解。该化合物属于生长激素释放激素受体激动剂，可刺激垂体释放生长激素。研究文献通常将其归入合成肽类药物，而非小分子化合物。
Measuring the effect of a growth hormone-releasing hormone analogue requires markers that reflect pituitary output rather than the peptide itself. The two most frequently used are growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor 1. Growth hormone fluctuates sharply across the day and responds to sleep, stress, and meals, so isolated readings can be difficult to interpret. Insulin-like growth factor 1 changes more slowly and is often treated as the more stable integrated marker of axis activity.
Because growth hormone is released in pulses, single measurements can misrepresent overall secretion. Investigators sometimes use repeated sampling or overnight profiles to capture the pattern rather than a single value. Provocative testing, in which a stimulus is given and the response is tracked over time, offers another way to characterize the axis. Each approach carries trade-offs between sensitivity, burden on the participant, and the influence of non-target variables.
Receptor-level activity begins when the peptide binds the GHRH receptor, a class B G-protein-coupled receptor found on pituitary somatotroph cells. Occupancy triggers Gs-mediated activation of adenylyl cyclase and a rise in intracellular cyclic AMP, which in turn promotes synthesis and pulsatile release of growth hormone. Because the compound acts upstream of the growth hormone axis rather than supplying hormone directly, its effect depends on intact pituitary function. Binding studies in cell culture and animal models have established this pathway; the detailed kinetics of receptor recycling in humans remain less well characterized.
Physicochemical behavior is dominated by the peptide backbone. The molecule is hydrophilic and carries a net positive charge near neutral pH, owing to several arginine and lysine residues. In solution it adopts a largely unstructured conformation, and aggregation is a known concern for peptide products of this size. Oxidation of methionine and deamidation of asparagine or glutamine residues are the principal chemical degradation routes. These liabilities shape how the material is formulated, handled, and analyzed, and they explain why lyophilized presentations are common in research settings.
Tesamorelin is a synthetic peptide analog of growth hormone-releasing hormone, built from 44 amino acids. Its sequence follows the natural human GHRH(1-44) backbone, with a trans-3-hexenoyl group attached to the N-terminal tyrosine. This modification blocks recognition by dipeptidyl peptidase IV, the enzyme that rapidly truncates the native hormone in circulation. The result is a molecule with a substantially longer plasma residence time than unmodified GHRH, which makes it practical for clinical and laboratory study.
Research supply is often accompanied by a certificate of analysis listing chromatographic purity, mass confirmation, and storage conditions. Laboratories compare that document with an independent test when material is intended for bench work, since certificates describe a batch rather than an individual vial. Published studies usually state the source and purity of the peptide because small differences in purity can shift measured activity. Full analytical validation is rarely reported, which leaves batch-to-batch comparability an open question.
The peptide is supplied as a lyophilized powder in single-use vials and is normally kept refrigerated between two and eight degrees Celsius, protected from light. Once dissolved, the solution is handled carefully because peptide bonds and the acyl modification can degrade under warm or alkaline conditions. Vials are inspected for cracks, and the powder is checked for color and uniformity before handling. Temperature excursions during shipping are a frequent reason for quality questions.
Other methods of refrigeration include the air cycle machine used in aircraft; the vortex tube used for spot cooling, when compressed air is available; and thermoacoustic refrigeration using sound waves in a pressurized gas to drive heat transfer and heat exchange; steam jet cooling popular in the early 1930s for air conditioning large buildings; thermoelastic cooling using a smart metal alloy stretching and relaxing. Many Stirling cycle heat engines can be run backwards to act as a refrigerator, and therefore these engines have a niche use in cryogenics. In addition, there are other types of cryocoolers such as Gifford-McMahon coolers, Joule-Thomson coolers, pulse-tube refrigerators and, for temperatures between 2 mK and 500 mK, dilution refrigerators.
=== Psychological === At normal therapeutic doses, the most common psychological side effects of amphetamine include increased alertness, apprehension, concentration, initiative, self-confidence and sociability, mood swings (elated mood followed by mildly depressed mood), insomnia or wakefulness, and decreased sense of fatigue. Less common side effects include anxiety, change in libido, grandiosity, irritability, repetitive or obsessive behaviors, and restlessness; these effects depend on the user's personality and current mental state. Amphetamine psychosis (e.g., delusions and paranoia) can occur in heavy users. Although very rare, this psychosis can also occur at therapeutic doses during long-term therapy. According to the FDA, "there is no systematic evidence" that stimulants produce aggressive behavior or hostility. Amphetamine has also been shown to produce a conditioned place preference in humans taking therapeutic doses, meaning that individuals acquire a preference for spending time in places where they have previously used amphetamine.
The great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), also known as the white shark, white pointer, or great white, is a large shark. It is closely related to the mako sharks, the porbeagle, and the salmon shark. It is a robustly built species with a grayish upperside and a white underside. The white shark is one of the largest living shark and fish species, though it is still smaller than the whale shark and basking shark. It has about 300 triangular, serrated teeth that are continuously replaced. Its massive, fatty liver can reach over a quarter of its body weight, providing buoyancy and storing energy. The species is partially warm-blooded, an adaptation that allows it to remain active in colder waters. White sharks inhabit tropical and temperate ocean waters around the world and can be found both near coasts and in the open ocean. Populations are most concentrated at the Pacific and Atlantic of North America and in the waters of southern Africa and Oceania. They are a highly migratory species, traveling between the coast and the open ocean and even between continents. The white shark preys on marine mammals such as seals and dolphins, as well as squid and fish, including other sharks. It also scavenges whale carcasses. Though normally an apex predator, the species is sometimes preyed on by orcas. White sharks are generally solitary, but may gather in aggregations, particularly at feeding sites. They may communicate and establish dominance hierarchies with body language. The species reproduces with pups hatching from eggs inside the female before being born live.
=== Presence in livestock species during gestation === Bovine/Ovine RBP, identical to that found in plasma has been identified in the placental tissues of both the ovine and the bovine, suggesting that RBP may be highly involved in retinol transport and metabolism during pregnancy. However, exact timing of expression had been yet to be identified. An antiserum specific for bovine conceptus RBP and immunohistochemistry has been utilized to identify the presence of RBP at different stages of early pregnancy. Strong immunostaining and hybridization were observed in the trophectoderm of tubular, but not spherical blastocysts at day 13. RBP mRNA was localized to epithelial cells of the chorion, allantois, and amnion at day 45 of pregnancy. Lastly, RBP mRNA was detected in the cotyledons, the fetal contribution to the placenta and the site of attachment to the uterine epithelium for fetal/maternal exchange. Expression of RBP in developing conceptuses, extraembryonic membranes, and at the fetal-maternal interface indicate that there may be some regulation of retinol transport and metabolism that occurs due to RBP by the extraembryonic membranes. Within the uterus of pregnant bovines, it has been found that RBP synthesis in the luminal and glandular epithelium is quite similar to that of a cyclic animal's; however upon reaching day 17 of the estrous cycle, levels of RBP remain constant and continue to gradually rise throughout gestation. It has also been suggested that ovarian steroids may play a role in regulating uterine RBP expression.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Nuclear terrorism by non-state organizations or actors (even individuals) is a largely unknown and understudied factor in nuclear deterrence thinking, as states possessing nuclear weapons are susceptible to retaliation in kind, while sub- or trans-state actors may be less so. The collapse of the Soviet Union has given rise to the possibility that former Soviet nuclear weapons might become available on the black market (so-called 'loose nukes'). A number of other concerns have been expressed about the security of nuclear weapons in newer nuclear powers with relatively less stable governments, such as Pakistan, but in each case, the fears have been addressed to some extent by statements and evidence provided by those nations, as well as cooperative programs between nations. Worry remains, however, in many circles that a relative decrease in the security of nuclear weapons has emerged in recent years, and that terrorists or others may attempt to exert control over (or use) nuclear weapons, militarily applicable technology, or nuclear materials and fuel. Another possible nuclear terrorism threat are devices designed to disperse radioactive materials over a large area using conventional explosives, called dirty bombs. The detonation of a "dirty bomb" would not cause a nuclear explosion, nor would it release enough radiation to kill or injure a large number of people. However, it could cause severe disruption and require potentially very costly decontamination procedures and increased spending on security measures.
== Chemistry == PSK is a protein polysaccharide consisting of a beta-glucan β-1,4 main chain with β-1,3 and β-1,6 side chains. The approximate molecular weight of PSK is 100,000 Da, and the protein component is reported at the β-1,6 side chain. PSK is isolated from the "CM-101" strain of Trametes versicolor. The analogous compound PSP, is derived from the "COV-1" strain of Trametes versicolor.
Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) is a proteinaceous hormone and a member of the parathyroid hormone family secreted by mesenchymal stem cells. It is occasionally secreted by cancer cells (for example, breast cancer, certain types of lung cancer including squamous-cell lung carcinoma). However, it also has normal functions in bone, teeth, vascular tissues and other tissues.
Molecules such as glucose are metabolized to produce acetyl CoA as a fairly energy-rich intermediate. The oxidation of acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) in the mitochondrial matrix is coupled to the reduction of a carrier molecule such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). The carriers pass electrons to the electron transport chain (ETC) in the inner mitochondrial membrane, which in turn pass them to other proteins in the ETC. The energy at every redox transfer step is used to pump protons from the matrix into the intermembrane space, storing energy in the form of a transmembrane electrochemical gradient. The protons move back across the inner membrane through the enzyme ATP synthase. The flow of protons back into the matrix of the mitochondrion via ATP synthase provides enough energy for ADP to combine with inorganic phosphate to form ATP. This was a radical proposal at the time, and was not well accepted. The prevailing view was that the energy of electron transfer was stored as a stable high potential intermediate, a chemically more conservative concept. The problem with the older paradigm is that no high energy intermediate was ever found, and the evidence for proton pumping by the complexes of the electron transfer chain grew too great to be ignored. Eventually the weight of evidence began to favor the chemiosmotic hypothesis, and in 1978 Peter D. Mitchell was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Chemiosmotic coupling is important for ATP production in mitochondria, chloroplasts and many bacteria and archaea.
==== Sexist remarks ==== On several occasions throughout his third term, Lula, speaking extemporaneously, made comments which were largely regarded as sexist. In May 2024, while announcing measures for those affected by the floods in Rio Grande do Sul, he said that "a washing machine is a very important thing for women". The next day, at a ceremony for the delivery of housing units, he said he had spoken with a 27-year-old woman with 5 children, and asked "When are you going to close the gate, comrade?". At a meeting held in the Palácio do Planalto in July 2024, Lula commented on the result of a study that found that violence against women increases after football matches, concluding: "Unbelievable. If the guy is a Corinthians supporter, that's fine". At the event marking the 2 years since the January 8 attacks, he said "I am a lover of democracy, I am not even a husband, I am a lover of democracy, because, most of the time, lovers are more passionate about their lovers than about their wives". In March 2025, at a ceremony at the Palácio do Planalto, Lula said that he had appointed a "beautiful woman" as Minister of Institutional Relations to get closer to the presidents of the Senate and the Chamber. At the opening of the 29th International Construction and Architecture Fair, held in April 2025, Lula referred disparagingly to the managing director of the International Monetary Fund, Kristalina Georgieva, calling her "a little woman".
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Research == The steroidal antiandrogen cyproterone acetate has been studied for blocking the testosterone flare at the start of buserelin therapy in men with prostate cancer. While cyproterone acetate for two weeks eliminates the biological and biochemical signs of the flare, no benefits on prostate cancer outcomes were observed. Very low doses of buserelin nasal spray have been assessed for increasing testosterone levels and fertility in men with oligoasthenozoospermia and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism.
Camurus aims to collaborate with biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies worldwide to enable and improve the delivery of a wide range of drug compounds. These compounds including peptides, proteins, and insoluble small molecules make use of delivery solutions ranging from long-acting depots to lipid nanocarriers designed for improved intravenous, transdermal, and oral delivery. Camurus' in-house product portfolio targets healthcare needs in areas of growth-hormone disorders, cancer, oncology supportive care, metabolic disease, and drug addiction. In 2007, British investors evaluated six nominated private companies and chose to Camurus as the best privately owned biotechnology company in the Medicon Valley. The company was awarded the Strictly Financing Award 2007. In 2013, Camurus was awarded CPhI Pharma Award for Best Innovation in Formulation.
In 2001, the World Health Organization reported that data from Kosovo was inconclusive and called for further studies. That same year, governments of several European countries, particularly Italy, reported an increase in illnesses and developments of cancers among veterans that served in Balkan peacekeeping missions. A 2003 study by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in Bosnia and Herzegovina stated that low levels of contaminant were found in drinking water and air particulate at DU penetrator impact points. The levels were stated as not a cause for alarm. Yet, Pekka Haavisto, chairman of the UNEP DU projects stated, "The findings of this study stress again the importance of appropriate clean-up and civil protection measures in a post-conflict situation." A team of Italian scientists from the University of Siena reported in 2005 that, although DU was "clearly" added to the soil in the study area, "the phenomenon was very limited spatially and the total uranium concentrations fell within the natural range of the element in soils.
As menin is located predominantly in the nucleus, these mutations can impact the stability of the cell and may further affect functional activity or expression levels of the protein. Studies have also shown that single amino acid changes in genes involved in oncogenic disorders may result in proteolytic degradation leading to loss of function and reduced stability of the mutant protein; a common mechanism for inactivating tumor suppressor gene products. MEN1 gene mutations and deletions also play a role in the development of hereditary and a subgroup of sporadic pituitary adenomas and were detected in approximately 5% of sporadic pituitary adenomas. Consequently, alterations of the gene represent a candidate pathogenetic mechanism of pituitary tumorigenesis especially when considered in terms of interactions with other proteins, growth factors, oncogenes play a rule in tumorigenesis. Although the exact function of MEN1 is not known, the Knudson "two-hit" hypothesis provides strong evidence that it is a tumor suppressor gene. Familial loss of one copy of MEN1 is seen in association with MEN-1 syndrome. Tumor suppressor carcinogenesis follows Knudson's "two-hit" model. The first hit is a heterozygous MEN1 germline mutation either developed in an early embryonic stage and consequently present in all cells at birth for the sporadic cases, or inherited from one parent in a familial case. The second hit is a MEN1 somatic mutation, oftentimes a large deletion occurring in the predisposed endocrine cell and providing cells with the survival advantaged needed for tumor development.
== Baltimore Colts == The Baltimore Colts defensive line that included future Hall of Famers defensive end Gino Marchetti and tackle Art Donovan, along with end Don Joyce and tackle Eugene "Big Daddy" Lipscomb has also been referred to as the "'fearsome foursome'" by at least 1958. They have been called the prototype of defensive lines. In addition to Marchetti’s and Donovan’s Hall of Fame status, Lipscomb was first-team All-Pro in 1958 and 1959. Marchetti is considered among the greatest defensive ends in NFL history. The Colts won the 1958 and 1959 NFL championships over the New York Giants, the 1958 game being known as "The Greatest Game Ever Played". They played together as a line from 1956 to 1960, with defensive end Ordell Braase taking over as a starter for Joyce in 1960, and Lipscomb being traded to the Steelers before the start of the 1961 season.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a laboratory-made peptide that mimics growth hormone-releasing hormone. It prompts the pituitary gland to release growth hormone and has been studied mainly in adults with HIV-associated lipodystrophy.
Administered growth hormone supplies the hormone directly, while this peptide acts upstream by prompting the pituitary to release it. The indirect route preserves pulsatile secretion and some endogenous feedback, which changes the hormone and IGF-1 profile observed after treatment.
Reductions in visceral adipose tissue appear consistently in randomized trials of the approved population. Effects on peripheral fat, cardiovascular outcomes, and use outside that population are less well established.
It acts upstream at the pituitary receptor and depends on functioning somatotroph cells to produce any effect. Growth hormone injections bypass that step and deliver the hormone directly. The pharmacokinetic profiles and the resulting feedback on the body's own secretion therefore differ.